Mexico remains a nation where the past plays a prominent role in shaping the nation's present day development. Mexico has a fascinating but often bewildering history. Its past differs from that of the U.S. and Canada in several respects, notably:

When "discovered" in 1519, Mexico was home to an estimated 10 million native inhabitants living in feudal but highly disciplined and organised societies. These people could not be ignored or simply swept aside, as was done in North America, but rather became the foundation upon which the Spanish conquerors built their colonial empire. Even today, Mexico is rich in ethnic diversity, with nearly 15 million pure-blooded Native Americans, speaking nearly fifty languages.

Mexico endured 300 years of colonial domination (1521-1821) by Spain, a nation that itself was one of the least progressive in Europe. Iberian institutions, political heritage, and authoritarian traditions left an indelible mark on Mexico.

Rich in mineral resources and man power, Mexico has historically been exploited in one form or another by foreign powers. Its abundant reserves of gold, silver, lead, petroleum, copper, and zinc are in sharp contrast to its shortage of tillable, well-irrigated soil. Sustained economic development has been difficult to achieve and has generally been distorted in favour of a small segment of the country's population.

For the past 150 years, Mexico has been overshadowed by its neighbour to the north. The relationship has wavered between blatant intervention, to total ignorance, to a growing sense of interdependence. Nowhere in the world do two countries of such distinction share a common border. Proximity to the U.S. has generated a peculiar attitude towards the U.S. Extensive "cultural borrowing" - American music, films, consumer products, and fashions - is mixed with staunch nationalism and the desire to "protect" the motherland from foreign economic and cultural domination.

The country's history can loosely be broken down as follows:

1200 B.C.-1521 A.D. - The Pre-Hispanic Era
Five major native civilisations, each occupying a different period of history, have influenced the history of Mexico.

OLMECS
The Olmecs, Mexico's first established culture, originated in the coastal states of Veracruz and Tabasco. This was a particularly influential culture, since subsequent groups borrowed heavily from the Olmec's religious, architectural and artistic traditions.
Despite the absence of stone or rock for construction, they developed massive cities (La Venta, San Lorenzo, Tres Zapotes). They also created an advanced calendar that included the concept of the number zero. This culture is particularly mysterious, since we know little about its origin, political structure, or reason for disappearance. The Olmec period is believed to have been from 1200 B.C. until 200 B.C.

MAYAS
First appearing around 1200 B.C., this culture developed in three distinct periods, each corresponding to a different region of Central America and Mexico. The Mayas are most noted for their complex systems of mathematics and astrology, prolific city-building and Baroque architecture. By 1400 A.D. the Mayan state had splintered and almost disappeared, leaving an incredible collection of ceremonial centres and ancient cities.

ZAPOTEC/MIXTEC
First appearing in the valley of Oaxaca around 900 B.C., the Zapotecs were great city builders and artisans who created extraordinary temples, burial chambers, pottery, and metal work. The Mixtec (pronounced "MEES-tec") culture conquered the Zapotecs and developed around the cities of Mitla and Yagul. They revived Monte Albán, although it was only used as a site for burial tombs. By the early 1400's, the Mixtecs became servants of the mighty Aztec empire. These two cultures continue their existence today in the State of Oaxaca, inhabited by nearly 2 million of their descendants.

TOLTECS
These mighty warriors occupied the northern reaches of the Valley of Mexico from around 950-1300 A.D. They built Tula, one of Mexico's most impressive cities, and were master craftsmen who strongly influenced later Mayan and Aztec cultures. This culture is believed by some to have developed from the magnificent Teotihuacán culture of Central Mexico.

AZTECS
This civilisation dominated Mexico for nearly 200 years (1345 A.D.Ð1521 A.D.) and was flourishing when Spanish conquerors arrived in 1519. The Aztecs used an elaborate system of taxing and patronage to subjugate an enormous empire that stretched well into Central America.

They were also master builders and imitators of Mexico's previous cultures. They borrowed heavily from their Olmec, Toltec, and Mayan predecessors to develop a complex linguistic, religious, artistic, architectural and military heritage.

Their mighty empire came to a sudden and tragic end in 1521, although much of its influence is still present today in the culture of the central plateau region.

1521-1810 - Conquest and Spanish Colonial Domination
After the fall of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlán (Mexico City) in 1521, Spain embarked on a period of exploration and conquest to consolidate its control of the rest of Mesoamerica. (See MEXICO CITY section.) Millions of natives fell victim to western disease, for which they had no resistance.

Spain and the Catholic church imposed their authority to create an extractive economy that reflected many of the worst features of colonialism and religious authoritarianism (including the Inquisition). Spain and its European creditors derived tremendous wealth from Indian labourers, who worked on enormous agricultural estates and huge mining operations. Colonial society was fashioned in a tight caste system reminiscent of European feudalism.

1810-1860 - Independence and Insurrection
Revolutions abroad (U.S., France) and the simmering conflict between criollos (Mexican-born Spaniards) and peninsulares (Spanish-born residents of Mexico) led to the demise of Spanish political and economic domination of Mexico.

Following Napoleon's conquest of the Iberian Peninsula in 1808, Spain could do little to resist Mexico's declaration of independence. The criollo leaders sought greater economic freedom and autonomy, but proposed little in the way of structural reform. The fight for independence began in 1810, lasted 11 years and over 600,000 lives were lost.

Three hundred years of colonial domination had ill-prepared the country for independence. In the scramble for economic gain, political chaos prevailed and injustice against the native and mestizo population grew.

Border conflicts with the U.S. led to an invasion in 1847, and the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, in which Mexico surrendered over half of its territory (the States of Texas, California, Colorado, Utah and Nevada) for a mere $17 per square mile! In 1853 the Gadsden Purchase yielded the U.S. another 30,000 sq.mi. of Mexico's lands (southern New Mexico and Arizona).

1860-1910 - Reform and Stability
A conflict between liberals (urban intellectuals wanting a new nation modelled after the United States) and Conservatives (landed aristocracy wanting an all-powerful church and dictatorship) led to the Reform Laws of 1860. The main target was the omnipotent Catholic Church.
In protest, conservatives rallied support from their European allies and in 1861 French troops arrived to install a new ruler: an Austrian Archduke, named Maximilian. His benevolent but ineffective rule ended with his execution in 1867.

Benito Juárez, a Zápotec Indian from Oaxaca and promulgator of the Reform Laws, reassumed the presidency after the execution of Maximilian. His four-year rule brought significant land reform and reduction of church rights.

Following Juarez's death in 1872, Porfirio Díaz (also a native of Oaxaca and one of Juarez's generals) named Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada to the presidency. Four years later Díaz himself took power and led Mexico through 34 years of stability and material progress. Extensive mining, railroad building, large-scale agriculture and foreign investment transformed Mexico, but heightened the country's economic and political inequity.

1910-1945 - Revolution and Reform
One of few true revolutions of the twentieth century, this revolt was a reaction to Mexico's unbalanced prosperity and the pitiful living conditions of its masses.

The Revolution's two original leaders, Zapata and Madero, were seeking two different revolts: Zapata an economic change; Madero a political change. It started as a middle class revolt in 1910 and developed into a peasant-led battle over land reform, universal suffrage, an end to foreign economic control, and a complete separation of church and state.

Millions of lives were lost as regional leaders battled for legitimacy and control. Finally, in 1917, a liberal constitution was ratified - one that still governs the nation. In fact, the Mexican Constitution is almost identical to that of the United States.

The next twenty years saw two leaders play significant and daring roles: Calles and Cardenas. Calles brutalised the church, courted the U.S. and institutionalised the political gains of the Revolution by forming the PRI, Mexico's omnipotent political party. Cardenas' programs focused on economic reform, including massive agrarian reform, and the nationalisation of the oil industry in 1938.

1945-present - The Modern Era
Significant material progress marked Mexican development following World War II. The country's infrastructure developed, and industrial/manufacturing sectors expanded, as did agricultural production. However, several nagging problems have shaped the country's past twenty years. These include rapid population growth, massive internal migration from the countryside to urban areas, a decline in agrarian output, a huge foreign debt, and double digit inflation.

Mexico remains the most stable democracy in Latin America. However, its single party dominated system has faced serious electoral challenges since 1988.

The current President, Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Le-n, was the outright winner of the hotly contested 1994 presidential election. He took office on Dec. 1, 1994 with promises to continue Mexico's economic liberalisation while addressing social and political inequities within the country.

Landmark elections held on July 6, 1997 were the first since major electoral reform was implemented in August of 1996. The reforms provide a new constitutional framework that establishes unprecedented conditions to guarantee transparent and equitable elections. No one party may now hold more than 60% of Chamber of Deputy seats. Thirty-two of the 120 total Senatorial seats are assigned proportionally in accordance with the vote received nationally by each party. In addition, Mexico's Chamber of Deputies is no longer controlled by the PRI, rather the majority of seats are held by members of the PRD, PAN, and several smaller parties.

For the first time in history, Mexico City residents elected their mayor (previously a political appointment made by the President). The landslide winner was Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas. Cárdenas is a former PRI Governor from Michoacán State. Since the late 1980's he has been a leader of the PRD party, a PRI rival.